Putnams Theory On Bowling Alone Essays - Community Building

Putnam's Theory On Bowling Alone Robert Putnam's central thesis in Bowling Alone is that there has been a decline in civic engagement and social capital over the past few decades. The idea of bowling alone stems from the fact that bowling in leagues from 1980 through 1993 decreased by 40 percent, while individual bowlers increased by 10 percent (Putnam 112). Putnam uses this metaphor for all forms of civic disengagement, meaning that people virtually do as little as possible collectively and would rather focus purely on the individual, rather than the group. Putnam's book addresses several topics of civic disengagement, including a decline in civic participation and social isolation. Putnam focuses on the increasing amount of television viewership and is wary to comment on technological increases, like the Internet, for this decline. However, Putnam tends to focus on what is occurring, using various sorts of data, and overlooks the true meaning of why it is occurring or the positive effects from an average American' s viewpoint. The increase in television viewership and use of the Internet does mark a change in social habits, but it does not warrant Putnam's view that it causes social isolation or disengagement. People in the forties and fifties did not have the same ability as society has today to watch television or use the Internet to get information. It is true that 50 years ago, citizens that wanted to be informed on current issues needed to attend meetings or engage in verbal conversation with other people to gather that information. Today, citizens spend an average of four hours a day watching television and countless hours at a computer, but they are getting more detailed information than the people fifty years ago did. The increase in television has allowed for all people to be better informed. Television enables people to get a broader view of current events, including immediate reports from around the globe and every angle of a situation because of the increase in television technology. This helps America's fast-paced society. In addition, there are more opportunities to discuss current concerns, like health, education, and even entertainment. The ability to watch television around the clock means that someone working a night shift can still get the latest new cooking and health techniques, or that a child who is home for the summer can still engage in educational, but entertaining programming. It may be argued that this isn't an effective use of time, but it is convenient and that is important to the American public. Another aspect of increased television viewership is the ability to watch sitcoms and sporting events. A person can also watch political debates and political analysis programs on television. Some people may watch this genre of television alone, but typically people enjoy watching them in a group. An example of this is the crowd of people at local bars on Monday nights watching football or the parties that people throw for a season premiere or an awards ceremony, or spending a family dinner enjoying the debates on television. The fact that the number of restaurants has nearly doubled in the past 30 years shows that there is a need to house more people for these kind of social interactions (Lemann 6) and they might be too lazy to cook the meal and invite people over, but they still want to engage. This contradicts the idea that more television watching means less of virtually every form of civic participation and social involvement (Putnam 228). Putnam believes that it is too early to assess the long-run social effects of the Internet (Putnam 171), but the positive impact on society must be expressed. However, seeing that Putnam has a website (www.bowlingalone.com), one must assume that he thinks it is a good form of social participation and civic engagement. The best way to express how the Internet functions are through the words of Internet theorist Michael Strangelove: The Internet is mass participation in fully bi-directional, uncensored mass communication. The Internet is so full of possibilities and it has truly helped the American people to better communicate with the world. The Internet has impacted the lives of everyone that has access to it. People utilize the Internet for every form of social participation

Free Essays on Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood

Critical Paper David Osborne wrote â€Å"Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood†. It reflects on the hardships and difficulties of being a full-time parent and having a full-time job. The story recreates a day in the life of a household father. While the storyline follows David Osborne’s day, the message or theme in â€Å"Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood† is to outline the responsibilities of working parents in today’s society. The theme of David Osborne’s responsibilities is framed around being a household father. I feel that when Rose, who is at work all day in the hospital, is able to stay with their son; David has a harsh tone towards what she does. He is the one who actually does most of the caring for Nick. When his wife’s maternal instincts kick in, she undermines David for Rose thinks she knows what to do, but this is what he does everyday. It is kind of ironic that she is an OBG/YN, which has to deal with babies everyday, but she does not really know a thing about raising a child of her own. I find this somewhat ignorant. David knows better on how to deal with Nick. I think they should sit down and have a good talk on their feelings. David Osborne’s attitude towards being a father is that â€Å"Part of the reason I love my role as a father is that I am secure in my role as a writer. Without that, I would not feel good enough about myself to be the kind of father that I am.† Even though there are difficulties and time constraints on his schedules, he draws strengths from what he does. I find it admirable that he takes on this much responsibility, but today a lot of people do the same. I find it interesting that he says in the story that he has no real time to write because of Nick, but then how was he able to write this story down. David’s style of writing is very realistic. When you read â€Å"Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood†, the text is very easy to relate to, and I find this kind of reading very enjoyable bec... Free Essays on Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood Free Essays on Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood Critical Paper David Osborne wrote â€Å"Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood†. It reflects on the hardships and difficulties of being a full-time parent and having a full-time job. The story recreates a day in the life of a household father. While the storyline follows David Osborne’s day, the message or theme in â€Å"Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood† is to outline the responsibilities of working parents in today’s society. The theme of David Osborne’s responsibilities is framed around being a household father. I feel that when Rose, who is at work all day in the hospital, is able to stay with their son; David has a harsh tone towards what she does. He is the one who actually does most of the caring for Nick. When his wife’s maternal instincts kick in, she undermines David for Rose thinks she knows what to do, but this is what he does everyday. It is kind of ironic that she is an OBG/YN, which has to deal with babies everyday, but she does not really know a thing about raising a child of her own. I find this somewhat ignorant. David knows better on how to deal with Nick. I think they should sit down and have a good talk on their feelings. David Osborne’s attitude towards being a father is that â€Å"Part of the reason I love my role as a father is that I am secure in my role as a writer. Without that, I would not feel good enough about myself to be the kind of father that I am.† Even though there are difficulties and time constraints on his schedules, he draws strengths from what he does. I find it admirable that he takes on this much responsibility, but today a lot of people do the same. I find it interesting that he says in the story that he has no real time to write because of Nick, but then how was he able to write this story down. David’s style of writing is very realistic. When you read â€Å"Beyond the Cult of Fatherhood†, the text is very easy to relate to, and I find this kind of reading very enjoyable bec...

Teaching to the Test in ESL Class

Teaching to the Test in ESL Class There are many issues surrounding the idea of teaching to the test. On the one hand, many feel that teaching makes it more difficult to test students knowledge because the focus is on the particular test at hand, not on holistic learning. Once learned, students can discard test-based knowledge and then begin to study for the next test. Obviously, this approach doesnt encourage language recycling, which is essential to acquisition. On the other hand, students who are thrown into a test without knowing exactly whats on the test might not know what to study. This presents a conundrum for many teachers: Do I pragmatically meet objectives or do I allow organic learning to take place?   For the English teacher, luckily, exam results wont lead to success or failure in life as is the case with the SAT, GSAT or other big examinations. For the most part, we can concentrate on producing and measuring the relative success or failure of each student. For example, I find giving students grades based on project work to be a highly accurate means of testing.   Unfortunately, many modern students have become accustomed to a test-based mode of study. In some cases, students expect us to give them clearly-defined tests. This is especially true when teaching grammar classes.   However, at times, students dont do very well on these tests. This in part is due to the fact that students are often not familiar with the importance of directions. Students are already nervous about their English and jump right into an exercise without clearly following the directions. Of course, understanding directions in English is part of the language acquisition process. However, it sometimes gets in the way.   For this reason, when giving any kind of standard assessment test, I like to teach to the test by providing a quick mock test in a review session leading up to a test. Especially at ​lower levels, this type of review will help students focus on their true abilities because theyll understand whats expected of them.   Example Review Quiz to Help Teach to the Test Here is an example review quiz I provided before a big grammar final. The test focuses on the present perfect, as well as difference in usage between past simple and the present perfect. Youll find notes and tips listed below the example quiz.   Part 1 – Circle the correct helping verb. 1.  Ã‚     Have / has he had lunch yet?2.  Ã‚     Have / has they played soccer today?3.  Ã‚     Have / has you eaten sushi? Part 2 – Fill in the blank with the PRESENT PERFECT verb. 1.  Ã‚     Fred (play / ) __________________ tennis many times.2.  Ã‚     She (have / -) __________________ breakfast this morning.3.  Ã‚     Peter and I (eat / ) _______________ fish this week.   Part 3 – Make a present perfect QUESTION with this answer. 1. Q ______________________________________________A: No, I haven’t seen Tom today.2. Q _______________________________________________A: Yes, they have flown to Chicago.3. Q ________________________________________________A: Yes, she’s worked for Google.   Part 4 – Write the correct V3 (past participle) in the blank. played  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     quit  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     driven  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     bought 1.  Ã‚     I haven’t ___________ a Lamborghini in my life.2.  Ã‚     She has _________ smoking cigarettes to be healthier.  3.  Ã‚     They’ve ____________ soccer two times this week.4.  Ã‚     I have _______________ three books today.   Part 5 – Verb forms: Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb.   Verb 1  Ã‚     Verb 2  Ã‚     Verb 3make  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     sang  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Forgotten   Part 6 – Write ‘for’ or ‘since’ to complete the sentences.   1.  Ã‚     I have lived in Portland _____ twenty years.2.  Ã‚     She’s studied piano _________ 2004.3.  Ã‚     They’ve cooked Italian food _______ they were teenagers.4.  Ã‚     My friends have worked in that company _________ a long, long time.  Part 7 – Answer each question with a complete sentence. 1. How long have you spoken English?A: _______________________ for _________. 2. How long have you played soccer?A: _______________________ since ___________. 3. How long have you known him?A: ____________________________ for ___________.   Part 8 – Write the correct form of the verb. Choose simple past or present perfect.   1.  Ã‚     She ___________(go) to New York three years ago.2.  Ã‚     I __________________ (smoke) cigarettes for ten years.3.  Ã‚     He _______________ (enjoy / -) the movie yesterday.4.  Ã‚     _________ you __________ (eat) sushi before?   Part 9. Circle the correct answer. 1. Fred _________ cake yesterday afternoon. a. has eatenb. eatedc. ated. was ate 2. I __________ at PELA for two months. a. studyb. am studyingc. have studyd. have studied   Part 10 – Fill in the blanks in these conversations. Use present perfect or simple past.   Peter: Have you ever ________ (buy) a car?Susan: Yes, I have.Peter: Cool! What car ___________ you _________ (buy)Susan: I _________ (buy) a Mercedes last year.   Teaching to the Test Tips Project each section onto a whiteboard to make sure that each student  actually sees whats expected.Ask students to come up and complete individual sections of the quiz. Have other students state whether they have completed the exercise correctly or not.  On the whiteboard, circle keywords in directions to make sure that students take notice of specific instructions.For the first question in each exercise, ask a student to complete the question on the whiteboard. Ask the student to explain why they answered in that manner.  Pay special attention to time expressions. Students tend to forget how important these are. For example, in exercise six students need to decide whether for or since should be used. Ask each student why they chose for or since.  On multiple choice questions, ask students why each incorrect answer is incorrect.  Dont worry about making a review quiz the same length as the actual test. Keep it short as the focus is on understanding how to take the test.

Should U.S immigration law be changed to allow more workers from Essay

Should U.S immigration law be changed to allow more workers from Mexico to enter legally - Essay Example The U.S government is trying create legislation concerning Mexican immigrants who legally enter the country and regulating the number of Mexican illegal immigrants. Despite a lot of controversy, the U.S government has not resolve the problem yet. Mexican immigration is a problem that the people of America and Mexico can not resolve easily. In this paper, I will identify the concerns of people who think illegal Mexican immigrants have negative impacts on the U.S economically and socially. Even though there are some people who advocate accepting Mexican immigrants, there are a lot of people still in opposition of Mexican immigration. A high percentage of U.S. citizens are opposed to Mexican immigration. These citizens are made up of a majority of low-income people, various minorities, and blacks. These people compete with the illegal Mexican immigrates for lower paying jobs. The illegal Mexican immigration brings out economical problems. According to Steven A. Camarota, over 55 percent of Americans are against the amnesty of illegal Mexican immigrants. In addition, 62 percent of these Americans come from low-income households and are opposed to accepting Mexican illegal immigrants (Camarota, p.1). Since, the illegal Mexican immigrants are cheap labor; low-income natives are concerned the illegal Mexican immigrants will lower the average wages. Furthermore, because employers prefer to hire illegal Mexican immigrants, for cheap labor, the economist are worried about the increased unemployment rate of natives. Economists are also concerned that illegal Mexican immigrants will have a negative impact on the U.S. economy. The illegal Mexican immigrants not only lower the wage of low-income natives, but they also increase the unemployment rate of uneducated youth. The inflow of illegal Mexican immigrants into U.S industry makes the supply of workers increase. Naturally, the excess supply of workers reduces average wages; the employer than can keep

How does the main protagonist in a christmas carol change throghout Essay

How does the main protagonist in a christmas carol change throghout the text - Essay Example I will be analyzing all the social, historical as well as cultural features that can be found in the text, too, and also the problems mentioned in the book which are similar to today’s multi-cultural society. The protagonist of this book is Ebenezer Scrooge who, in the beginning is, shown as an old, ‘tight-fisted hand at the grind- stone’ man who is ‘a squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching, covetous, old sinner!’. Bob Cratchit works for him but Scrooge pays him a paltry sum which is not enough for him to bring up his large family. Scrooge is ‘self-contained, and solitary as an oyster.’ (Dickens, 1843, p. 4) He does not like any celebrations, particularly Christmas, nor does he like having happy people around him. One of the most frequent adjectives used by Scrooge is ‘Humbug!’ (Dickens, 1843, p. 7). His personality undergoes a drastic change once the Ghosts of the Past, Present and Yet to Come visit him in his d reams. At seeing himself end up as a lonely person abandoned by all during all three of these, he wakes up a changed man, promising to ‘honour Christmas in (his) heart, and try to keep it all the year’. (Dickens, 1843, p. 125) He calls himself ‘as happy as an angel †¦ as merry as a schoolboy ... ... He has used adjectives very appropriately in the first stave to give the reader a sense of the characters and the setting. He also uses onomatopoeia to emphasize on emotions as well as the sounds: ‘Clash, clang, hammer; ding, dong, bell. Bell, dong, ding; hammer, clang, clash.’. (Dickens, 1843, p. 129) The reader would also notice the use of similes so one can compare the situation to something ‘Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail.’ (Dickens, 1843, p. 3) When describing Scrooge, Charles Dickens uses the weather elements to show what his character is like and even his facial structure: ‘The cold within him froze his old features †¦ He carried his own low temperature always about with him †¦ and didn’t thaw it one degree at Christmas †¦ No wind that blew was bitterer than he ....’ (Dickens, 1843, p. 5) Dickens’ A Christmas Carol is thought to be a novella by many. These are usually fictional, narrative stories which are not too long in length and the plot is not too diverse, but mostly focuses on a particular plotline, the endings usually suggesting a change. The story is in first person which makes the reader believe that it is the author Dickens himself who is the narrator of the book, an omniscient narrator to be precise. Using the first point of view allows him to capture the readers’ interest, allows them to believe that they are a part of the story. The narrative form also lets the reader to feel what is happening in the novella. There is a great deal of imagery one comes across in the book so one can have a vivid picture of what exactly is going on. It helps give a greater impact of the setting and the

Bismarcks appointment of Minister President of Prussia Essay Example for Free

Bismarcks appointment of Minister President of Prussia Essay Bismarcks appointment of Minister President of Prussia (1862) was the most important turning point in the course of German nationalism in the period 1815-1919? By 1919 Germany had been united, and the nature of nationalism had changed from a freedom seeking, democratic force into one which demanded popular subservience to the state. German nationalism had clearly changed radically over the period of more than one hundred years and defining the turning point at which it changed is difficult due to the sheer number of factors that impacted upon it as well as the vast number of events and organisations which interfered with its development. Otto von Bismarck would become viewed in later years as the father of German nationalism. When he came to power 1862 the Kaiser was looking for a man who could oppose the liberals and force through a favourable army bill. However, within just nine years Germany would have become united, not without the help, though not always willing, from Bismarck. Bismarck effected the unification of Germany almost single-handedly. However, many of the opportunities which Bismarck actually attempted to manipulate were neither created by him nor very successful. Bismarck did not always manage nationalism as effectively as it is suggested. The Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71 forced to unite with the southern states in Germany when in reality it would have been unlikely that he desired this. Prussia was still attempting to absorb the north German states and to add the southern states, especially with their un-Prussian culture, risked diluting Prussias culture too far. It is clear that in 1890 Bismarck was managed by nationalism because he was forced to resign due to the outpouring of nationalist feeling that resented him attempting to hold Germany in check. He represented the old Germany, a Prussian dominated one and in an effort to find a German chancellor he was removed from office. Even the Dual Alliance in 1879 demonstrated how German nationalism forced him to take actions against his will. With his Prussian upbringing his loyalties more likely lay with Russian rather than Austria and the decline of Austria was increasingly clear for all too see, to join the young, powerful Germany with this crumbling empire would do nothing to help the country yet nationalistic feeling in Germany forced the Alliance. Bismarcks appointment in 1882 was an important moment in German nationalism but the theory that one man had such an impact upon the fate of a nation does not stand so well in light of deeper scrutiny. The Congress of Vienna held in 1815 helped create an environment which would help the growth of German nationalism. Prussias gains in the west of Germany were actually intended by the Allies to be a burden. They had given the smallest of the Great Powers the most difficult job as acting as a barricade against France. However, this would backfire on the Allies when it would later become Germanys massive industrial growth. It also affected the nature of Prussia, whereas she had previously been a predominantly Eastern European power she now had a pan-German outlook, though it appeared to begin with that she had little in common with her western population. The distance between the two main blocks of land meant that transporting goods between the two would prove difficult and this would spur the creation and development of the Prussian Customs Union in 1818 which would later become the Zollverein in 1834. However, when at the Congress of Vienna the Allies faced the question of what is Germany they fell back on historical precedent, the Holy Roman Empire. This can be seen as a retrospective step because it actually excluded areas of both Austria and Prussia, as well as making many of the smaller states much larger. The Congress of Vienna was not a turning point in German nationalism, but without it the nature of Germany could have been very different from that with which we are familiar if it existed at all. The creation of the Zollverein in 1834 was a critical turning point for German nationalism, formed from the Prussian Customs Union in 1818. Thomas Nipperdy described the creation of the Zollverein as the outstanding event in all-German history. Given the basis as a pan-German union it improved the contacts between all of the German states, encouraging them to work together for mutual benefit and broke down barriers between the regions of Germany both officially and culturally. It is often the case that economic unity leads to political as appears to be the case with the EU, formerly the European Economic Community (EEC) and the push for a European constitution. However, German political unity was far from inevitable, many Germans now saw political unity as obsolete because they achieved all the benefits of such a union without the risk of losing any of their own unique regional culture. The Zollverein was also critical in training a new cadre of diplomats for Prussia and teaching them to administer a German organisation, experience which would be invaluable in the post-unification era. Bismarck once declared in a speech to the North German Reichstag in 1869 that He who has his thumb on the purse has the power and by taking the economic leadership of the German states Prussia rose importantly and a Kleindeutsch solution to the German problem became much more feasible. It also struck a double blow in this respect. It not only made a Prussian-led Germany more likely but it made an Austrian-led Germany less likely. Because of her exclusion from the customs union the Austrian economy suffered and her already fragile market became on step closer to failing and this would be one of the major reasons for her defeat to Prussia. The use of the economy mirrored the nature of German nationalism; initially it was a liberal move, the reduction of trade barriers embodied by the introduction of the Zollverein. However, by the time unification was achieved economic policy turned its back on liberalism and the economic protectionism Bismarck employed against Russia helped show how far nationalism had changed. The Zollverein would form the template upon which the German Empire would eventually be founded, a kleindeutsch dominated by Prussia. Some historians even go so far to view the whole of the unification of Germany as purely an economic transaction, that it was not driven by political ideology but by the cold logic of money and economic expansionism. The Zollverein did represent an important twist in the history of German nationalism but it did not utterly change the face of the ideology but simply made the prospect more likely. In addition to this, the success of the Zollverein would provide the necessary environment for the rapid expansion of industry within German and this would have a critical impact upon nationalism. 1848 can very easily be viewed as the critical turning point in the history of German nationalism. It is often seen as a turning point about which history failed to turn, and it is this very failure which makes it such an important date in the history of German nationalism. 1848 presented revolutionary factions within Germany, and other countries throughout Europe, with a window of opportunity. In Paris the Second Republic is established in a welter of violence; in Sicily the Palermo Uprising takes place; in Hungary revolution boils over; Swedish revolutionaries are gunned down by their government and in Ireland the potato famine sparks the Tipperary Revolt. To the established order it appeared that stability was breaking down and anarchy threatened them. It was in this climate of exceptional change that the German revolutionary effort failed. The dithering incompetence of the middle classes, coupled with their glaring impotence discredited liberal politics and any idea of a revolution from below. This would prove potentially dangerous for the development of German nationalism. Divorced from its liberal and democratic roots it became a force of the right and of the paternalist government. This resulted in the desire for individual freedoms being sacrificed for the will of state. The government was paranoid about the dangers of the socialist movement within Germany, but they actually shared many common ideals, most markedly the concept of the priority of the state over the individual. It became obvious that power and change could not be achieved without the power of an army to back themselves; Bismarck summarised this problem in his most famous speech the great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions that was the error of 1848 but by iron and blood. Given our knowledge of how German nationalism developed into a violent, racist, militaristic force it is clear to see that 1848 was a seminal moment in its development, the pre-1848 liberal, French-styled nationalism became a force of the militant right. 1848 also represented a turning point for German nationalism in a European context. It appeared that countries were naturally progressing from being authoritarian monarchies to becoming nationalistic, liberal democracies. Germanys refusal to follow this trend fundamentally altered the nature of German nationalism. This turning point about which history failed to turn left something rotten at the core of German nationalism. The change from idealism to brutal pragmatism, combined with the machinations of Bismarck and the authoritarian government meant that the German peoples cause was subverted and used as a weapon against those European powers who had abused Germany for such a long time. On the 18th of January 1871 the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. This can easily be seen as a turning point in German nationalism, it finally created what the nationalists had been striving for over the past half century. Though it is true that the majority of what then became Germany existed in the North German Confederation created 4 years earlier after Prussias victory over Austria it represented a subtle but important shift in the history of German nationalism and the process of reaching the announcement played a very important role in defining the new Germany. Even the date upon which the Empire was announced held special significance, 270 years earlier the first Elector of Brandenburg was crowned King in Prussia. This clearly symbolically established Prussian hegemony over the newly created German Reich. Even the fact that the proclamation was made at Versailles was more significant than simple a quick expediency. Were the proclamation were to be made in Berlin, the capital of the new Empire, it would have most likely been made in Parliament. For Bismarck this would have been intolerable, in his eyes it was the army and their feudal, warlord leaders who had united the new empire rather than the romantic liberals and their speeches and majority votes. The Reich was declared in the home of imperial power, Versailles was the benchmark against which all other symbols of imperial might were measured and it clearly showed how the ruling elite of the new Germany planned to rule the country. It would be easy to say that it was a simple political humiliation for the French to have their enemies declare their new country in the French capital but to do this would ignore the deeper significance of both the time and place it was made. Nationalism within Germany underwent many changes over the period from 1815 to 1919. It suffered from a gradual change from its ideals over the time and it is difficult to differentiate between the impacts that the different potential turning points had on German nationalism. However, the most seminal moment in the history Germany nationalism was when it shifted indelibly from the idealists views to the pragmatic views of the industrialists within the country. 1866 can be seen as the turning point in the unification of Germany rather than a turning point in the nature of German nationalism. The failure of democracy in 1848 at a time when many other revolutions had succeeded left many Germans with the view that it would only be through violence and warfare blood and iron that their dreams would ever be realised.

Christianity Essay -- Roman Catholic Protestant Eastern Orthodox

Christianity is the religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Most followers of Christianity, called Christians, are members of one of three major groups--Roman Catholic, Protestant, or Eastern Orthodox. These groups have different beliefs about Jesus and His teachings. But all consider Jesus central to their religion. Most Christians believe God sent Jesus into the world as the Savior. Christianity teaches that humanity can achieve salvation through Jesus. Jesus lived in Judea (later called Palestine), a Middle Eastern land ruled by the Romans. The Romans crucified Jesus about A.D. 30. Jesus' followers were convinced that He rose from the dead, and they soon spread Christianity to major cities throughout the Roman Empire. Today, Christians make up the largest religious group in the world. Christianity has about 1 1/2 billion followers. It is the major religion in Europe, the Western Hemisphere, and Australia. Many Christians also live in Africa and Asia. Christianity has had an enormous influence on Western civilization, especially on art, literature, and philosophy. The teachings of Christianity have had a lasting effect on the conduct of business, government, and social relations. Beliefs Christians believe that there is one God, and that He created the universe and continues to care for it. The belief in one God was first taught by the Jewish religion. Christianity teaches that God sent His Son, Jesus, into the world as His chosen servant, called the Messiah (Christos in Greek), to help people fulfill their religious duties. Christianity also teaches that after Jesus' earthly life, God's presence remained on earth in the form of the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost. The belief that in one God there are three Persons--the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit--is known as the doctrine of the Trinity. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and many Protestant churches accept this doctrine as the central teaching of Christianity. Some Christians regard Jesus as a great but human teacher. However, most Christians view Jesus as God incarnate--that is, a divine being who took on the human appearance and characteristics of a man. They believe that Jesus is the Savior who died to save humanity from sin. According to this view, Jesus' death made salvation and eternal life possible for others. Christians gather in ... ...e body of thought that included science and philosophy. The scholastics wished to reach a better understanding of Christian faith through reason. Saint Anselm, an early scholastic, attempted to prove God's existence through logic. In the 1200's, Saint Thomas Aquinas produced the most important scholastic work, the Summa Theologica. In it, he brought Christian doctrine into harmony with the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Monasteries were centers of learning throughout the Middle Ages. In the 1200's, members of new religious orders, called friars, began to work among the people. Franciscan friars followed the selfless example of Saint Francis of Assisi, who founded their order in 1209. Franciscans were noted for their loving service to others. The Dominican order, founded in 1216 by Saint Dominic, became noted for its scholarship. During the Middle Ages, Christian armies tried to recapture Palestine, which had been conquered by Muslim Turks. These military expeditions, known as Crusades, began just before 1100 and ended in the late 1200's. The crusaders failed to hold the Holy Land. But their contact with the East greatly influenced European culture.